Myelocytic leukemia (AML) patients Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide (human, rat, mouse, rabbit, canine, porcine) web induced into remission, those receiving irradiated allogeneic blasts together with BCG in combination with chemotherapy had an average survival of 510 days compared to patients receiving chemotherapy alone who had an average survival of 270 days [11]. Despite these positive results, immunotherapy fell out of favor when a meta-analysis of 24 trials concluded no clinically relevant benefit in 1983 [12]. Immunogenicity of CML cells was supported by reports of antibody [13] and T cell proliferative [14] responses in CML patients after administration of irradiated allogeneic cells together with immunological adjuvants. Furthermore, administration of purified IgG antibodies from goats immunized with the human CML cell line K562 in PubMed ID:https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28380356 two CML patients led to a sharp decrease and the eventual eradication of blasts from the peripheral blood and bone marrow [15]. Although this therapeutic option cannot be advocated due to the potential for induction of serum sickness, it does suggest the existence of CML-specific antigens. Molecular evidence for the existence of CML-specific T cell responses was brought forward by Cheever et al who demonstrated that CD4 T cell immunity could be generated toward BCR-ABL expressing cell lines after vaccination of mice with peptides generated from the junctional region of the BCR-ABL fusion protein [16]. Indeed, the identification of HLA class I [17], and HLA class II- binding [18] BCR-ABL peptides supports the hypothesis that antigen presentation, and subsequent T cell recognition of this specific oncoprotein may serve as a mechanism for the graft versus leukemia (GVL) effect commonly seen in bone marrow transplant patients. These studies also dem-Page 2 of(page number not for citation purposes)Journal of Translational Medicine 2007, 5:http://www.translational-medicine.com/content/5/1/interferon non-responding patients [29]. These observations raise the question if the T cells exist in a state of anergy from which they can be rescued by immune stimulation, or whether they are ablated by central tolerance or peripheral apoptosis. Evidence seems to point to the former rather than the latter. Specifically, administration of IFN-alpha to patients has been demonstrated to induce/restore ability of BCR-ABL peptide specific T cells to produce Th1 cytokines, as well as to endow them with cytotoxic activity [30]. When looking at the second wellknown CML-specific antigen PR-1, it was demonstrated that patients entering cytogenetic remission through administration of IFN-alpha also had a re-emergence of high-affinity antigen-specific CD8 cells with potent cytolytic activity in vitro [31]. From these studies it appears that not only is T cell immunity possible to CML cells, but such immunity appears to be relevant to clinical outcome. The fact that antigen-specific suppression of anti-CML responses occurs [28,31] but can be reversed by appropriate immune stimulation provides impetus for studies investigating immune modulatory therapies for CML.Immunogenicity of CML: The Innate Immune ResponseIn recent years the molecular identification of mechanisms associated with innate recognition of “danger” signals has led to a rebirth of the study of innate immunity. Specifically, the discovery of the toll-like receptors (TLRs) as well as other “sensors of danger” such as the nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain (NOD)-containing proteins has stimulated a plethora of studies assessing the role of innat.